Turkey
Turkey (officially the Republic of Türkiye) is a transcontinental country located primarily on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a smaller portion in Southeast Europe. It is one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited regions and a major regional power bridging Eastern and Western civilisations.
Turkey (officially the Republic of Türkiye; Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti) is a transcontinental republic straddling the border of Western Asia and Southeast Europe, bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. Ankara serves as the capital, while Istanbul is the largest city and primary cultural and economic centre. With a population exceeding 85 million (as of the early 2020s), Turkey is among the most populous nations in the region.
Geography
The country's territory consists of the large Anatolian plateau — historically called Asia Minor — and the smaller region of East Thrace, which lies in Europe west of the Bosphorus Strait. The two parts are separated by the Turkish Straits, comprising the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles. These waterways constitute one of the most strategically significant maritime corridors in the world, controlling passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.
Anatolia is characterised by a central highland plateau flanked by mountain ranges: the Pontic Mountains to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south. Mount Ararat, at approximately 5,137 metres above sea level, is the highest peak in the country and carries deep cultural and religious symbolism. The country shares land borders with eight nations: Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan (the Nakhchivan exclave) to the northeast, and Iran, Iraq, and Syria to the east and southeast.
History
Ancient and Medieval Periods
Anatolia is among the earliest sites of human settlement, with archaeological evidence at Çatalhöyük indicating continuous habitation from approximately 7500 BCE. The region subsequently hosted successive civilisations, including the Hittites, Phrygians, Lydians, and Persians. Greek colonisation of the western Anatolian coast produced prominent city-states such as Ephesus and Miletus. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, the region passed through Hellenistic rule before being absorbed into the Roman Empire, and later the Byzantine Empire, which maintained its capital at Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) from 330 CE.
The gradual arrival of Seljuk Turks from Central Asia following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 CE transformed the ethnic and linguistic character of Anatolia. The subsequent establishment of the Sultanate of Rum introduced Turkic language and Islamic culture broadly across the region. The Seljuk state was eventually succeeded by a collection of Anatolian beyliks, one of which — the Ottoman beylik under Osman I — expanded rapidly from the late 13th century onward.
The Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire grew to become one of the largest and most enduring empires in history, at its height controlling territories spanning Southeast Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire and establishing the city as their imperial capital. The empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the 16th and early 17th centuries under rulers such as Suleiman the Magnificent. A long period of gradual decline followed, marked by military defeats, nationalist uprisings among subject peoples, and economic stagnation. By the 19th century, the empire was referred to by European powers as the sick man of Europe.
The empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers in 1914. Its defeat contributed to further territorial losses codified in the Treaty of Sèvres (1920). The period also saw the Armenian Genocide (1915–1916), in which Ottoman authorities oversaw the mass deportation and killing of the Armenian population; this event remains a subject of significant historical and political controversy, with recognition disputed by the Turkish state.
Republic of Turkey
Following the Ottoman defeat and subsequent Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed on 29 October 1923. Atatürk implemented sweeping modernisation and secularisation reforms, abolishing the sultanate and caliphate, adopting a Latin-based alphabet, overhauling the legal system, and promoting a Turkish national identity. He served as the republic's first president until his death in 1938.
Turkey remained neutral for most of World War II, joining the Allied powers only in February 1945. It became a founding member of the United Nations and joined NATO in 1952. The latter half of the 20th century was marked by periods of political instability, including military coups in 1960, 1971, and 1980. An attempted coup in July 2016 was suppressed; the government subsequently undertook widespread purges of military, judicial, and civil service personnel.
Government and Politics
Turkey operates under a presidential system of government, adopted through a constitutional referendum in 2017 and fully implemented following the 2018 elections. The President of Turkey serves as both head of state and head of government. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, who first came to national prominence as Prime Minister from 2003, has served as President since 2014.
Turkey is a member of numerous international organisations, including NATO, the G20, the Council of Europe, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Its bid for membership in the European Union, formally applied for in 1987 and granted candidate status in 1999, has remained stalled over issues of democratic governance, human rights, and unresolved disputes with EU member states, particularly Cyprus.
Economy
Turkey has a large, diversified economy classified as an upper-middle-income country by the World Bank. Key sectors include manufacturing, tourism, agriculture, and construction. The country is a significant producer of textiles, automotive components, electronics, and food products. Istanbul functions as the financial and commercial hub. Turkey has experienced periods of high inflation and currency volatility, particularly from the late 2010s onward; the Turkish lira depreciated substantially during this period. Tourism is a major revenue source, with tens of millions of visitors annually, drawn by archaeological sites, coastal resorts, and cultural heritage.
Culture
Turkish culture reflects the country's position at the intersection of diverse civilisations. Turkish cuisine, architecture, music, and literature bear influences from Central Asian, Ottoman, Persian, Arab, and European traditions. The Turkish language, a member of the Oghuz branch of Turkic languages, is the sole official language. Islam is practised by the great majority of the population, though the state is officially secular. Major cultural landmarks include the Hagia Sophia, the Topkapı Palace, and the ancient ruins of Ephesus and Troy.