Varanasi

Varanasi, also known historically as Kashi and during the colonial period as Benares, is one of the oldest continuously inhabited urban settlements on Earth, situated on the western bank of the Ganges River in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The city functions as the spiritual capital of Hinduism, a major centre of Buddhism and Jainism, and one of the most important pilgrimage destinations on the Indian subcontinent. Its recorded history spans more than three thousand years, and some scholarly estimates place human habitation in the area as far back as the eleventh or twelfth century BCE, though precise dates remain a matter of ongoing academic discussion.

Geography and setting

Varanasi lies at approximately 25.3°N, 83.0°E, on a crescent-shaped stretch of the Ganges's western bank. The Varuna and Assi rivers mark the city's traditional northern and southern boundaries respectively, and the name Varanasi is widely believed to be a compound of the two river names, though alternative etymological theories exist. The eastern bank of the Ganges opposite the city remains largely undeveloped, offering an unobstructed view of the famous riverside ghats at sunrise that has attracted travellers and artists for centuries.

The city lies at an elevation of roughly 80 metres above sea level. The climate is subtropical, with hot summers, a monsoon season from June to September, and mild winters. The Ganges Plain surrounding Varanasi is densely agricultural and among the most fertile lowland zones in South Asia.

History

Ancient and classical periods

Ancient texts, including the Rigveda and the Puranas, reference Kashi as a centre of learning, asceticism, and trade. Gautama Buddha is recorded in Buddhist tradition to have delivered his first sermon at Sarnath, located approximately 10 kilometres north of the city centre, around the fifth century BCE, making the wider Varanasi region a foundational site for Buddhism as well as Hinduism.

During the Maurya and Gupta empires, Varanasi flourished as a commercial and intellectual hub, known for the production of fine silk textiles, ivory work, and perfume. The city's prominence as a site of Sanskrit learning made it a destination for scholars from across the subcontinent.

Medieval period

Varanasi was sacked and partially destroyed on multiple occasions during the medieval period, most notably by Mahmud of Ghazni's forces in the eleventh century and later by Qutb ud-Din Aibak in 1194 CE, when numerous temples were reportedly demolished. Under the Mughal Empire, the city experienced both periods of destruction — particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb, who ordered the construction of the Gyanvapi Mosque on the site of a major Shiva temple — and periods of patronage and reconstruction.

Colonial and modern period

Under British rule, the city was administered as Benares and became the capital of the Benares State, a princely state within British India. The British Raj period saw the construction of roads, railways, and administrative buildings alongside the traditional urban fabric. After Indian independence in 1947, the city reverted to the name Varanasi officially in 1956.

In the twenty-first century, Varanasi has attracted national political attention; the constituency of Varanasi elected Narendra Modi, who subsequently became Prime Minister of India, to the Lok Sabha in 2014 and again in subsequent elections. Large-scale urban redevelopment projects, including the Kashi Vishwanath Corridor inaugurated in 2021, have significantly altered the area around the principal temple complex, generating both public enthusiasm and heritage conservation debate.

Religion and culture

Hinduism and the ghats

The approximately eighty-eight ghats — stepped stone embankments descending to the Ganges — are the symbolic heart of Varanasi. Pilgrims perform ritual bathing (snan) at the ghats, believing the Ganges water in Varanasi to possess special purifying power. The Dashashwamedh Ghat is among the most prominent, hosting the daily Ganga Aarti ceremony, a fire-offering ritual performed by priests each evening and attended by thousands of worshippers and tourists.

The Manikarnika Ghat and Harishchandra Ghat serve as the city's principal cremation sites. Varanasi is considered by Hindus to be a place where dying confers moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirth), making it a destination for the dying and the bereaved from across India and the broader Hindu diaspora.

The Kashi Vishwanath Temple, dedicated to Shiva in his form as lord of Kashi, is the most sacred temple in the city and one of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines recognised across Hinduism.

Buddhism and Jainism

The Deer Park at Sarnath, where the Buddha preached his first sermon, draws Buddhist pilgrims from Sri Lanka, Thailand, Japan, Tibet, and beyond. Several monasteries and the Dhamek Stupa, dating in its current form to the Gupta period, are maintained at the site.

Varanasi is also associated with the birth of Parshvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara of Jainism, making it a significant pilgrimage site within that tradition as well.

Arts, music, and scholarship

The city has been a centre of classical Hindustani music for centuries, producing musicians associated with the Banaras gharana (school). It is also renowned for Banarasi silk sarees, handwoven textiles using fine silk and gold or silver brocade that carry a Geographical Indication tag under Indian law. The Banaras Hindu University, founded in 1916 by Madan Mohan Malaviya, is one of the largest residential universities in Asia and a major centre of Sanskrit studies, science, and the arts.

Economy and demographics

Varanasi's economy rests on pilgrimage tourism, the handloom textile industry, education, and trade in religious goods. The Banarasi silk weaving industry employs hundreds of thousands of artisans, though it has faced sustained competition from power-loom production and cheaper imitations. The city's population is estimated at over 1.2 million within the municipal area (exact figures depend on the census year consulted and are subject to revision).

Varanasi is connected by road, rail, and the Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport, which handles both domestic and a limited number of international flights. The city serves as a regional commercial centre for eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Frequently asked questions

Is Varanasi the oldest city in the world?

Varanasi is among the oldest continuously inhabited cities on Earth, with settlement history generally traced back more than three thousand years, but claims of it being definitively the oldest are contested by scholars who point to other ancient urban sites such as Jericho and Damascus. The precise antiquity of continuous habitation in Varanasi remains a subject of academic discussion.

Is Varanasi the same as Benares or Kashi?

Yes; Varanasi, Benares, and Kashi are three names for the same city. Kashi is the ancient Sanskrit name, Benares was the form used during the Mughal and British colonial periods, and Varanasi became the official administrative name after Indian independence.

Is Varanasi safe for tourists?

Varanasi receives millions of domestic and international tourists annually and is generally considered accessible, though visitors are advised to exercise standard precautions in crowded ghat areas and during major festival periods. Conditions and advisories may change; travellers should consult current government travel guidance.

Is the Ganges River water in Varanasi clean?

The Ganges at Varanasi has long been a subject of environmental concern due to industrial effluent, sewage discharge, and ritual waste. Government initiatives including the Namami Gange programme have aimed to improve water quality, but as of the mid-2020s pollution levels remain high according to environmental monitoring bodies, even as some improvement has been reported in certain stretches.

Is Sarnath part of Varanasi?

Sarnath is a distinct locality and archaeological site located approximately 10 kilometres north of central Varanasi. It falls within the broader Varanasi district and is administratively connected to the city, making it typically visited as a day trip from Varanasi.